Everything about Domitian totally explained
Family and education
Domitian was born in
Rome on
24 October 51, as the youngest son of
Titus Flavius Vespasianus—commonly known as Vespasian—and
Flavia Domitilla Maior. He had one older sister,
Domitilla the Younger (b. 39), and one older brother, also named Titus Flavius Vespasianus (b. 39), but commonly referred to as
Titus.
Decades of civil war during the
1st century BC had contributed greatly to the demise of the old artistocracy of Rome, which was gradually replaced in prominence by a new Italian nobility during the early part of the
1st century AD. One such family was the
gens Flavia, which rose from relative obscurity to prominence in just four generations, acquiring wealth and status under the emperors of the
Julio-Claudian dynasty. Domitian's great-grandfather,
Titus Flavius Petro, had served as a
centurion under
Pompey during
Caesar's civil war. His military career ended in disgrace when he fled the battlefield at the
Battle of Pharsalus in
48 BC. Sabinus himself amassed further wealth and possible
equestrian status through his services as
tax collector in Asia and banker in
Helvetia. By marrying
Vespasia Polla he allied himself to the more prestigious
patrician gens Vespasia, ensuring the elevation of his sons
Titus Flavius Sabinus II and
Vespasian to the
senatorial rank. Nevertheless, ancient sources allege
poverty for the Flavian family at the time of Domitian's upbringing, even claiming Vespasian had fallen into disrepute under the emperors
Caligula (
37–
41) and
Nero (
54–
68). Modern history however, suggests these stories were merely part of a
propaganda campaign, later instigated under Flavian rule, to diminish early successes under the less reputable emperors of the Julio-Claudian dynasty, and maximize achievements under Claudius (
41–
54) and his son Britannicus. By all appearances, imperial favour for the Flavians was high throughout the 40s and 60s. While Titus received a court education in the company of
Britannicus, Vespasian pursued a successful political and military career. Following a prolonged period of retirement during the 50s, he returned to public office in
63 under Nero, serving as
proconsul of the
Africa province, and accompanying the emperor during an official tour of
Greece in
66. When a
revolt broke out among the Jews of the
Judaea province the same year, the emperor appointed Vespasian to lead the
Roman army in the war against the insurgents. In this campaign he was joined by Titus, who had completed his military education by this time and personally commanded one of Vespasian's three legions.
For Domitian, this meant that a significant part of his
adolescence was spent in the absence of his near relatives. His mother and sister had long died by 66, and his father and brother were continuously active in the Roman military, commanding armies in
Germania and Judaea. During the Jewish-Roman wars, Domitian was likely taken under the care of his uncle Titus Flavius Sabinus II, then
city prefect of Rome; possibly even
Marcus Cocceius Nerva, a loyal friend of the Flavians and the future successor to Domitian. He received the education of a young man of the privileged senatorial class, studying
rhetoric and
literature. In his biography in the
Lives of the Twelve Caesars,
Suetonius attests to Domitian's ability to quote the important poets and writers such as
Homer or
Virgil on appropriate occasions, and describes him as a learned and educated adolescent, with elegant conversation. Among his first published works were
poetry, as well as writings on
law and administration.
Year of the Four Emperors
On
June 9 68, amidst growing opposition of the
Senate and the army, Nero committed
suicide, and with him the Julio-Claudian dynasty came to an end. Chaos ensued, leading to a year of brutal civil war known as the
Year of the Four Emperors, during which the four most influential generals in the
Roman Empire—
Galba,
Otho,
Vitellius and
Vespasian—successively vied for the imperial power. News of Nero's death reached Vespasian as he was preparing to besiege the city of
Jerusalem. Almost simultaneously, the Senate had declared
Galba, then governor of
Hispania Tarraconensis, as emperor of Rome. Rather than continue his campaign, Vespasian decided to await further orders and sent Titus to greet the new
princeps. Before reaching Italy however, Titus learnt that Galba had been murdered and replaced by
Otho, the governor of
Lusitania. At the same time
Vitellius and his armies in
Germania had risen in revolt, and prepared to march on Rome, intent on overthrowing Otho. Not wanting to risk being taken hostage by one side or the other, Titus abandoned the journey to Rome and rejoined his father in Judaea.
Otho and Vitellius were only too aware of the threat posed by the Flavian faction. With four legions at his disposal, Vespasian commanded a strength of nearly 80,000 soldiers. His position in Judaea further granted him the advantage of being nearest to the vital
province of Egypt, which controlled the
grain supply to Rome. His brother Titus Flavius Sabinus II, as city prefect, commanded the entire
city garrison of Rome. Tensions among the Flavian troops were high, but so long as Galba and Otho remained in power, Vespasian refused to take action. When Otho was defeated by Vitellius at the
First Battle of Bedriacum however, the armies in Judaea and Ægyptus took matters into their own hands and declared Vespasian emperor on
July 1 69. Vespasian accepted, and through negotiations by Titus joined forces with
Gaius Licinius Mucianus, governor of Syria. A strong force drawn from the Judean and Syrian legions marched on Rome under the command of Mucianus, while Vespasian himself travelled to
Alexandria, leaving Titus in charge to end the Jewish rebellion.
In Rome meanwhile, Domitian was placed under
house arrest by Vitellius, as a safeguard against future Flavian aggression. Support for the old emperor was quickly wavering however, as more legions throughout the empire pledged their allegiance to Vespasian. On
October 24, both sides clashed at the
Second Battle of Bedriacum, which ended in a crushing defeat for the armies of Vitellius. In despair, he attempted to negotiate a surrender. Terms of peace, including a voluntary abdication, were agreed upon with Titus Flavius Sabinus II, but the soldiers of the
Praetorian Guard—the imperial
bodyguard—considered such a resignation disgraceful, and prevented Vitellius from carrying out the treaty. On the morning of
December 18, the emperor appeared to deposit the imperial insignia at the
Temple of Concord, but at the last minute retraced his steps to the imperial palace. In the confusion, the leading men of the state gathered at Sabinus' house, proclaiming Vespasian emperor, but the multitude dispersed when Vitellian cohorts clashed with the armed escort of Sabinus, who was forced to retreat to the
Capitoline Hill. During the night, he was joined by his relatives, including Domitian. The armies of Mucianus were nearing Rome, but the
besieged Flavian party couldn't hold out for longer than a day. On
December 19, Vitellianists broke down the doors of the
Arx, and in the resulting skirmish, Sabinus was captured and executed. Domitian himself managed to escape by disguising himself as a worshipper of
Isis, and spent the night in safety with one of his father's clients. By the afternoon of
December 20, Vitellius was dead, and his armies defeated by the Flavian legions. With nothing more to be feared from the enemy, Domitian came forward to meet the invading forces; he was universally saluted by the title of
Caesar, and the mass of troops conducted him to his father's house. The following day,
December 21, the Senate proclaimed Vespasian emperor of the Roman Empire.
Reign of Vespasian and Titus
Aftermath of the war
Although the war had officially ended, a state of
anarchy and lawlessness pervaded in the first days following the demise of Vitellius. Order was properly restored by Mucianus in early 70, but Vespasian didn't return until September of that year. Domitian's authority was merely
nominal however, foreshadowing what was to be his role for at least ten more years. By all accounts, Mucianus held the real power in Vespasian's absence, and he was careful to ensure that Domitian, still only 18 years old, didn't overstep the boundaries of his function. Strict control was also maintained over the young Caesar's, promoting away influential generals such as Arrius Varus,
Praetorian prefect, and
Antonius Primus, who had led the Flavian forces at Bedriacum, and replacing them by more reliable men such as
Arrecinus Clemens. When news arrived of Cerialis' victory over Civilis, Mucianus tactfully dissuaded Domitian from pursuing further military endeavours. Domitian then wrote to Cerialis personally, suggesting to hand over command of his army, but once again, he was snubbed. With the return of Vespasian in late September finally, his political role was rendered all but obsolete. Domitian withdrew from government and devoted his time to arts and
literature. but Domitian was adamant of his love for
Domitia Longina, going so far as to persuade her husband,
Lucius Aelius Lamia, to divorce her so that Domitian could marry her himself.
The marriage appears to have been happy, despite allegations by Roman sources of
adultery and
divorce. The couple had only one child, an unnamed son, born in 73, who died sometime around 81. It is believed that, because of this, Domitian exiled his wife on grounds of
infertility in 83, but soon recalled her, either out of love or amidst allegations he carried on an affair with his niece Julia Flavia. It isn't known whether Domitian ever had other children, but he didn't marry another woman during his lifetime.
Ceremonial heir
In June
71,
Titus returned triumphant from the war in Judaea. Ultimately, the rebellion had claimed the lives of over 1 million people, a majority of which were Jewish. The city and
temple of
Jerusalem were completely destroyed, its most valuable treasures carried off by the Roman army, and nearly 100,000 people were captured and enslaved. The family procession was headed by Vespasian and Titus, while Domitian, riding a magnificent white
horse, followed with the remaining Flavian relatives. Leaders of the Jewish resistance were executed in the
Forum Romanum, after which the procession closed with religious sacrifices at the
Temple of Jupiter. powers which left no doubt he was the designated heir to the Empire. As a second son, Domitian held honorary titles, such as
Caesar or
Princeps Iuventutis, and several priesthoods, including those of
augur,
pontifex,
frater arvalis,
magister frater arvalium, and
sacerdos collegiorum omnium, Under Vespasian and Titus, non-Flavians were virtually excluded from the important public offices. Mucianus himself all but disappeared from historical records during this time, and it's believed he died sometime between 75 and 77. Real power was unmistakenly concentrated into the hands of the Flavian faction; the Senate remained merely a facade of
democracy.
Because Titus effectively acted as co-emperor to his father, no abrupt change in Flavian policy took place when Vespasian died on
June 23 79. Titus assured Domitian that full partnership in the government would soon be his, but neither tribunician power nor
imperium of any kind was conferred upon him during his brief reign. Understandably, the new emperor wasn't hardpressed to alter this arrangement anytime soon: he'd have expected to rule for at least another 20 or 30 years, and more urgent attention was required to the multitude of disasters which struck throughout 79 and 80. On
August 24 79,
Mount Vesuvius erupted, burying the surrounding cities of
Pompeii and
Herculaneum under metres of ash and
lava; the following year, a fire broke out in Rome, lasting three days, which destroyed a number of important public buildings. Consequently, Titus spent much of his reign coördinating relief efforts and restoring damaged property. On
September 13 81 however, after barely two years in office, he unexpectedly died of fever during a trip to the
Sabine territories.
A number of ancient authors have implicated Domitian in the death of his brother, either by directly accusing him of murder, or implying he left the ailing Titus for dead, further alleging that even during his lifetime, Titus was openly plotted against by his brother. The
Book of Revelation is thought by many scholars to have been written during Domitian's reign as a reaction to persecution. Other historians, however, have maintained that there was little or no persecution of Christians during Domitian's time. There is no historical consensus on the matter., and required people to address him similarly. Coins of the period represent him enthroned as "father of the gods".
Death and succession
Domitian was murdered in September 96, in a palace conspiracy organized by court officials and high ranking members of the Praetorian Guard. The emperor believed that, according to an astrological prediction, he'd die around noon. Therefore, he was always restless during this time of the day. On his last day, Domitian was feeling disturbed and asked a servant boy several times what time it was. The boy, included in the plot, lied, saying that it was much later. More at ease, the emperor went to his desk to sign some decrees, where he was stabbed eight times by Stephanus.
Domitian was succeeded by
Nerva (by appointment of the senate). The custom of
damnatio memoriae was issued on Domitian, ordering his obliteration from all public records. Domitian is the only known emperor to have officially received a
damnatio memoriae, though others may have received
de facto ones. Many of the images that survive of Domitian's successor, Nerva, were actually once Domitian but converted to Nerva after the
damnatio was issued. Nearly all surviving images of Domitian were found in the provinces.
Historiography
Ancient sources
Juvenal, Tacitus and Suetonius authored information about the reign of Domitian after it ended. This would have been impolitic.
- Tacitus, a historian, spoke from personal knowledge when he wrote his Histories on the arc of the Flavian dynasty. Unfortunately, the part of this work dealing with the reign of Domitian is lost.
- Juvenal, an author of Roman satire, depicted Domitian and his court as corrupt, violent, and unjust.
- Suetonius, author of the Lives of the Twelve Caesars, the most extensive ancient account of the life of the emperor extant.
Statius wrote four poems that contained information about Domitian's life.
Martial's work contains references and epigrams to Domitian.
Domitian in later arts
Chief character in The Roman Actor by Philip Massinger
An important character in Donna Gillespie's novel The Light BearerFurther Information
Get more info on 'Domitian'.
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